Essay No. 38
What the Police Know
PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY FOR INCREASING CRIME
Extracts from
the Introduction to the Criminal Statistics for 1909
by H. B. Simpson, C.B., of the Home Office;
and from the Reports of the Chief Constable of Liverpool
for 1909 and 191o.
COMPILED BY Isabel D. Marris
IT is to be regretted that pressure of work, lack of interest, or disinclination to tackle the supposed profundity of Blue Books, should prevent so many philanthropic workers and social reformers from studying the reports of Government Officials, of the Police, and of other active administrators who are in constant touch with the actual conditions of our national life. It is unfortunate that the valuable stores of experience and information obtained by such men and women concerning hard facts and practical methods should be so slightly utilised by the general public, and that the progress of reform should thereby be retarded.
An attempt has here been made to set forth some of the carefully considered conclusions of two responsible officials in regard to recent criminal statistics, and the deductions to be drawn therefrom.
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A closer study of the reports from which these extracts are taken is strongly recommended. Their full official, titles, price, and addresses from which they can be obtained, are given at the end of this paper.
The passages here quoted have been arranged in four sections, three of which follow lines of thought suggested by the Chief Constable of Liverpool in his reports as follows :-
I. That crime is increasing."
II. That the poor suffer more through this increase than the rich."
III. That the sentimental attitude of the general public towards crime and the criminal must, to some extent at all events, be blamed for the increase."
A fourth section has been added in which remarks
indicating possibilities of remedial work have been gathered together :-
IV. Remarks indicating possible lines for re¬medial work.
The passages quoted are indicated in the usual way, though obviously the sequence in which they appear here cannot be that of the original reports.
In submitting the statistics to the Secretary of State the Permanent Under Secretary writes :---"The Introduction of the Statistics has been prepared by Mr. H. B. Simpson, C.B., of this Office. In the
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Introduction Mr. Simpson discusses fully the causes of the increase of crime during the last ten years; the suggestions he puts forward must be taken, not as the official views of the Department, but as con¬clusions to which he personally has been led after long experience and close study of criminal ques tions."
Mr. Ii. B. SIMPSON, C.B.
SECTION I.
The following are Mr. Simpson's words in regard to the increase of crime :-
" The high figure for crime which was a marked feature in the Statistics of 1908 is again apparent in the 1909 Statistics. In 1908 the total number of persons tried for indictable offences was 68,116, a larger number than in any previous year for which figures are available. In 19o9, though not so large as in 1908, it was 67,149, which is considerably larger than in any year before 1908.
"For the five years 1894-8 the annual average was 52,208; for 1899-1903 it was 55,018; for 1904-8 it was 62,000; and for 1909 it was 67,149."
"As to the increase of crime generally since 1899, how¬ever, the figures leave no room for doubt.
"It is no doubt probable that an increase or decrease of crime in a single year as compared with the preceding year may be in part attributable to industrial causes and the con¬dition of the country generally, but it would, I think, be impossible to obtain any series of figures bearing on the general condition of the country that would at all coincide with the remarkable series of figures relating to crime which is now under consideration. These point to a steady increase of criminality during the last 10 years which is more marked than at any previous period for which similar statistics are
414
available. It is impossible to avoid the conclusion that during these years some cause favourable to crime has been regularly at work which before then either did not exist at all or did not exercise sufficient influence to affect the figures. Moreover it can scarcely be doubted that there is a growing indisposition to prosecute for offences of the less serious kind, a growing inclination towards leniency to first offenders, a growing reluctance to take the trouble to prosecute a thief who, if he is convicted, is likely to be let off with little or no punishment ; and it is consequently probable that the real increase in crime has been even greater than is shown by the figures relating to the number of persons prosecuted. These figures are taken as the best available index to the number of crimes committed, and though they are nothing but an index, it is right to say that the figures relating to the number of crimes reported to the police, though they are probably in themselves of less statistical value, give substantially the same results."
SECTION 2.
The following passage on page II of Mr. Simp-son's Introduction bears upon Mr. Dunning's second point, i.e. that it is the poor who suffer more through this increase (of crime) than the rich.
"The crimes committed by them [i.e. men of weak character who largely compose the criminal class] are mostly crimes against property, but not, as a general rule, against the property of the wealthy, and the takings, being on a modest scale, require to be very frequent in order to provide sufficient means for living. It is probable that, in contrast to the eminent criminals whose coups most attract the attention of the police and the public, it is only a small proportion of their thefts that form the subject of a criminal charge or appear in the Criminal Statistics. The persons who suffer mostly from their depredations do not belong to what is
415
ordinarily known as the ' propertied class.' A wealthy man does not often expose any appreciable proportion of his income to the mercy of the common thief : his money is at his bank, and though the loss of his purse may be vexatious, it is not likely to cause serious embarrassment. A working man, a clerk, or a small shopkeeper, on the other hand, may be vitally affected by a theft which persons who belong to a higher social standing would regard as trivial. In the 1,795 cases of larceny from the person, and the 47,363 'minor larcenies' which came into court during 1909, the victims who suffered most were ill-paid clerks or working men and women, who were robbed of money that had been saved to pay the rent, or to pay for the annual holiday, or for their children's clothes; lodging-house keepers and domestic servants defrauded by rogues who were better off than them¬selves, or artisans who lost the tools that formed the whole of their working capital. The theft of tools valued at a few shillings may seem to many a paltry theft, not deserving of severe punishment, but to the owner it may mean a period of acute unemployment or even a subsidence into the ranks of unskilled labour. So, too, with burglaries : the rich man's house offers more temptation to the burglar ; but it is, on the other hand, more difficult to break into than the house where one servant only or none is kept; while the house-breaker, who operates by day, finds his best opportunities in those houses where no servants at all are kept, and the occupants may all be absent at their work during the middle of the day. Lastly, it may safely be said that when money or food is obtained by false pretences, the victims are more often than not persons of small means. Crime on a large scale is possible only for the few, while the vast majority must adopt as their motto the rule of ' small profits and quick returns.' In fact, the propertied classes can fairly well protect them¬selves against all but the more enterprising criminals, and at all events suffer far less than the poor do ; if the comparative defencelessness of the latter against the professional thieves and swindlers were more fully realised by the public, it is
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possible that there would be less sympathy with the convicted criminal, and consequently less crime to record in these Statistics."
SECTION 3.
The last words in this paragraph merge into the third contention, i.e. " that the sentimental attitude of the general public towards crime and the criminal must, to some extent at all events, be blamed for the increase." On this point Mr. Simpson writes as follows :—
" If then the warfare against crime has been waged with less success during the first years of the present century than it was in the years preceding it, we are driven to ask the cause to which this can be attributed. No intelligent person who has studied the subject can have failed to notice the marked growth since 1898 of a strong sentiment of com¬passion for the criminal. Mitigations of prison discipline, the Probation of Offenders Act, and the establishment of the Borstal system for young delinquents are among the amend¬ments of our penal system which have been the outcome of this sentiment. These, it may with considerable confidence be hoped, will in the long run help to diminish the total amount of crime. It is very much to the public interest that an offender against the law should be enabled to retain his self-respect during the term of imprisonment that his offence may bring upon him, and should be encouraged at the end of it to do his best to retrieve his character. Excessive rigour towards law-breakers who are not yet habituals ' has un¬doubtedly in the past augmented the ranks of the habitual criminals, and the main object of the amendments which have been effected during the last 10 years in our penal system has been to facilitate an offender's return to the path of honesty and to make the punishment imposed on him an aid rather than a hindrance in his way. But public sentiment, or at any
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rate the sentiment that finds public expression, has gone far beyond this.
"In the magazines and newspapers that are ordinarily re-garded as reflecting public opinion, articles on crime and punishment are commoner than they ever were, and the senti¬ment that is expressed towards the criminal is almost universally compassionate and often sympathetic to an extent that no previous generation has shown. From some of the expressions used it might almost seem that the reading public is on the side of the criminal as against the law, and is ready to accept without corroboration anything he may say to im¬pugn the administration of justice. Tales that would be unhesitatingly rejected if they were told by a beggar in the street appear, when urged from the dock as an excuse for theft, to be received with much readier credulity. One illustration may be given. In the summer of this year a man of 28 was charged with trespassing on railway premises. He pleaded that he was gathering flowers to lay on his father's grave. As his father had been dead some five or six years, and he was found in the company of two known poachers and a lurcher dog, he could scarcely have expected his excuse to be taken seriously by the Bench, who, in fact, imposed a penalty of 6s. 6d., to include the costs, or in default to go to prison for seven days in the Second Division : a fortnight was allowed him in which to pay the fine. But the story was presumably meant for a wider audience, and was eagerly taken up by reporters wearied with the dull records of the police cohrts. It was repeated with various embellishments and perversions of fact in the press of this country, and finally appeared in an American newspaper in the following form :—
" PLUCKED FLOWERS FOR FATHER'S GRAVE AND
II-YEAR-OLD BOY IS JAILED.
"‘ Because the T . . . Magistrates imposed a prison sentence upon an 11-year-old boy, whose offence was venturing upon the South Eastern railroad right of way 2 B
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here, to pluck flowers for his father's grave, the entire Bench will have to do some explaining to the Secretary of State for Home Affairs. . . .
"' The boy protested that being too poor to get a floral tribute for his father's grave, he thought there would be no harm in taking wild flowers from an uncultivated plot. The Bench, however, pointed out with great severity that the rising generation of Englishmen must be taught respect for the rights of others. The boy was fined $1.55 and costs amounting to $7.5o, which he could not pay. He would have been sent to prison had not generous persons paid the fine.'
" Such glaring perversions of the truth as the above would scarcely be given wide currency in the press if it were not supposed that the first impulse of a considerable proportion of the public is to side with the law-breaker in his conflict against the law and to believe in his allegations of the harsh¬ness with which the law is enforced against him, however improbable they may be; and there is a good deal of evidence that such a predisposition is actually becoming commoner than it was. Now of all influences for the repression of crime the most potent is exercised not by the courts, nor the police, nor the prison authorities, but by public opinion. The belief that a good character is the best asset for getting on in the world is a powerful incentive to honesty. In many cases the fear of incurring censure and spoiling his chances of a liveli¬hood has done more to keep a man honest when he is tempted to do a dishonest act than any fear of what the law can do to him. Apart from religious or purely ethical motives there is nothing that supplies so strong a motive for honesty as the general sense of the community.
"A community that no longer resented crime, and had learned to feel nothing but compassion for the criminal, would in time inevitably find itself faced by a flood of criminality against which police and prison authorities would struggle
419
in vain. And though we are far at present from any such catastrophe, it is permissible to suggest that the steady in-crease of crime during the last 10 years is largely due to a general relaxation in Public sentiment with regard to it. There is at all events ground for fearing that reprobation of crime and resentment against the criminal are at present factors of diminishing strength in the primary function of civilisation--the safeguarding of persons and property and the enforcement of the law ; and that the increase in the number of indictable offences, as shown in the Judicial Statistics for the last 10 years, is not a mere passing phenomenon such as has often been noticed in the Statistics for previous years, but the symptom of a real and increasing danger to the public welfare."
These, then, are the measured words of one who has opportunities for observation upon an extended scale. It is surely to the advantage of the public that they should be widely considered.
We now turn to some observations of the Chief Constable of Liverpool. It is fully recognised both by Mr. Dunning and the compiler of this paper that the conditions obtaining in Liverpool are somewhat exceptional. Nevertheless, it is felt that the follow¬ing passages are of general interest rather than local.
Referring to Mr. Dunning's Reports for 1909 and 191o, we And that in support of Sections and 2 he quotes largely from Mr. Simpson's In-troduction. His own words in this connection, how¬ever, are worth consideration :—
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" On the general question whether the state of the streets is worse than it was some few years ago one has to rely to a great extent upon personal observation, and impressions have to be discounted by changed circumstances. The spread of places of amusement over a larger area has spread the evening crowd which provides the market, and with it the sellers and buyers engaged in this traffic, but more than one circumstance during the year has impressed upon my mind the suspicion that we have gone back rather than forward during the year.
"That peculiarly despicable offence of men living on the proceeds of prostitution is on the increase; the prosecutions rose from 21 to 36, and among them were many of the worst form, namely those in which the offender was the lawful husband of the unfortunate woman.
"Immorality, outside its limited aspect which comes within the legitimate limits of this report, is, I fear, on the increase."
SECTION 2.
In regard to his second point, " that the poor suffer most from the increase of crime," Mr. Dunning again quotes Mr. Simpson's words. He also says :—
" Poverty leads to petty larceny and other crime involving but small values, and examination of the crime of Liverpool reveals an enormous proportion of petty larceny and of offences against property with violence, house-breaking and the like, where the loss is serious only through the poor cir¬cumstances of the unfortunate victims, persons such as are described in one extract from Mr. Simpson's Introduction, such as were described in my Report for 1907.
"But again, apart from these main causes of crime, poverty, drink, betting, there are special forms of temptation of fairly general application—amusement, for instance, enters more and more into the daily life of us all. One is glad to see increased opportunities of fairly rational entertainment,
422
but they mean increased expenditure, which in its turn means increased temptation to those who have not the legitimate means of satisfying it.
" There has been so much change in the regulation of places of amusement that there are no reliable grounds of com¬parison, but I have no hesitation in saying that the number of places of public entertainment in Liverpool has doubled in number since 1895, while the system of two houses a night has almost doubled the capacity of the Variety theatres, the weekly number of performances having increased from eight
to fifteen. This increase of licensed places and of their
accommodation, together with the invention of new forms of entertainment like roller skating, now on the decline, mean an enormous increase of expenditure and of temptation, especially to juvenile adults who spend their evenings utterly untrammelled by parental control.
" The electric picture halls, which provide on the whole a sensible entertainment of some educative value, cater largely at their day performances for children, and the details of many of the petty larcenies brought home to children suggest that the motive for many of them is to be found in the desire for amusement."
SECTION 3.
Endeavouring to trace some causes for the un-
satisfactory state of affairs prevailing in our midst, Mr. Dunning inquires :—
" But apart from juvenile crime are we going the right way about finding a cure for crime generally, or is not humanitarianism unfettered by common sense fostering crime, by extending the output of the individual criminal, and in other ways cultivating the criminal classes ? "
"Again, is the humanitarian in his attitude towards the
criminal actuated by a real wish to better mankind generally,
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or by a mere desire to escape from what is personally un-pleasant?
" I find it hard to express what I mean, but here it is pretty nearly in a passage from a sensational novel :—
"` It would be madness to expect a civilised country to revert to the barbarism of an age in which death was the penalty for every other crime, and I will not insult your intelligence by denying that such a return to the bad days was ever suggested by me, but there has come into exist¬ence a spurious form of humanitarianism, the exponents of which have, it would appear, lost their sense of propor¬tion, and have promoted the fear of pain to a religion—who have forgotten that the age of reason is not yet, and that men who are animal in all but human semblance share the animal's obedience to corrective discipline, share, too, his blind fear of death—and are amenable to methods that threaten his comfort or his life.' He flung out his hand toward the judge—'You, my lord,' he cried,' can you order the flogging of a brute who has half killed one of his fellows without incurring the bleating wrath of men and women who put everything before physical pain—honour, Patriotism, justice! Can you sentence a man to death for a cruel murder without a thousand shrieking products of our time rushing hither and thither like ants striving to secure his release ? Without a chorus of pity—that was unexcited by the mangled victim of his ferocity? Killing, deliberate wolfish killing by man, say they in effect, is the act of God : but the legal punishment of death is murder.' "
In the 1910 Report we read :—
"When the Prevention of Crimes Act 1908 was introduced to the House of Commons, the statement that the object of dealing with crime was the protection of the community was greeted with cries of No.' This illustrates the attitude of the sentimentalist, who regards amelioration of the lot of the offender as the principal aim of penal reform. But mere re-
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laxation of punishment has never done good to either the offender or the community; on the contrary, it has robbed the fear of detection of its value as a deterrent. A Recorder recently called attention to the increasing number of persons who deliberately commit offences for the purpose of going to prison, which treats them better than the workhouse does.
"Recent reforms of penal treatment, the substitution of the industrial school and reformatory for the prison, the Borstal system as an extension of that substitution, and the probationary care of offenders, are to be valued, not because they aim at benefit to the offender, but because through that benefit they aim at the protection of the community. They aim at curing the offender, and so preventing recurrence of offences.
"But there comes a time with some offenders when cure is impossible, and other means must be taken to protect the paramount interests of the community. The failure to recognise the existence of such persons is one of the reasons of our still retaining some of our faith in the system of suiting the treatment to the crime, and not to the criminal. We have begun at one end by devising better treatment for the first and casual offender, for whom there is some hope of reform, but unwillingness to recognise the nasty fact of the habitual offender, for whom there is no hope of reform, stands in the way of doing something really sensible to protect the community from him."
And speaking of juvenile misbehaviour :—
" Attention has in previous years been called to the growing carelessness of parents about the welfare of their children, to which this growing amount of criminality is due, and to the question whether the teaching of common honesty would not be more useful than some of the items of the elementary school curriculum. It is, however, the criminality and the crime, rather than their causes, which are more properly the subject
425
of this report. The strange thing about the discussion of juvenile crime is the tendency to blame the person who brings the crime to light, and accuse him of making a criminal of the child; but this is part of the sentimental attitude of so many people, who prefer to remain in ignorance of unpleasant facts."
It is of little use, however, to sum up a bad case if there is no hope of remedy. Fortunately it may be confidently acknowledged that there are marked indications that conditions can be, and will be, improved, especially if the efforts of reformers are backed by a healthy and well-informed public opinion.
The following passages from the Chief Con¬stable's Reports suggest possible lines of action, some definite, some more intangible but none the less effective :—
SECTION 4.
Speaking of habitual offenders, Mr. Dunning says :—
" Among the difficulties of administering the criminal law none are greater than those of finding treatment, 1 purposely do not say punishment, for the first offender and the habitual offender.
"Both these questions are the subject of constant dis¬cussion and experiment, both legislative and administrative, influenced to an undue extent by sentiment, by desire to hide the existence of real evils and to subordinate the interests of the community to those of the individual.
426
" These influences in many instances override the dictates of common sense, and, strange though it may appear, they more often prevail in the case of the habitual off enter than in that of the first offender. Both sentiment and common sense call for everything being done for the first offender, even at the expense of the community, but, when a person has been proved to have become a menace to society, surely the claims of society should override those of the individual.
" Take for instance the rules for the remission of sentence upon the test of good behaviour in prison; a person sentenced to less than three months' imprisonment gets no remission, but a person sentenced to not less than three months, whose offence and probably character may be taken to be worse, is indulged at the expense of the community without any regard to the probable result of his earlier restoration to liberty; for instance, a person sentenced to eleven separate terms of imprisonment of one month in a year would have to serve them all, whilst one who got eleven months in two fours and a three would not do more than about ten."
Mr. Dunning has a good deal more to say upon the question of preventive detention and other reme¬dial measures which it would be helpful to refer to did space permit It is, however, necessary to pass on to the question of juvenile offenders. In the 1910 Report there occurs a striking passage, which both indicates a useful mode of work for the prevention of juvenile crime, and which also bears out the contention first set forth in this paper, i.e. that the recorded experiences of such workers as the police might with the greatest advantage is closely studied by philanthropists and social workers.
Mr. Dunning says, speaking of the children :—
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"So far for the 820 who came within reach of the magistrate, but more directly interesting to the police is their own action as set out in the figure, ' Cautioned by the police, x,006.' This embodies what I may call our private probation system, and covers the cases which are not serious enough for one reason or another to go before the magistrate.
"The caution to parent or child is sometimes given by the policeman who investigates the case, sometimes by the Superintendent. But every case is kept in mind, and when supervision, great or small, seems advisable it is given, while the inquiry made at the school draws the attention of the master or mistress to the child's needs. On this point I must emphasise the co-operation of the Education Depart-ment, and to the Director of Education I must convey our heartiest thanks for allowing us to work with his Depart-ment for the good of the child.
"Of the i,006 only 5 per cent., as compared with 7.9 per cent. last year, were in trouble again. This does not of course mean that 95 per cent. became little angels; probably another 25 per cent. did wrong without being found out, but even if 5o per cent. behaved themselves it would be satisfactory.
"Friendly relations are established with both child and parents to a much greater extent than they would be if appearance before the magistrate had introduced the child to something he did not understand and had caused the parent loss of work by appearance there; and I am inclined to think that words from the Superintendent, who is a more familiar feature of the child's life, have a more lasting effect than those of the magistrate who represents a more indefinite personality.
"In the course of all these duties, supervision of licensed street traders, treatment of juvenile offenders, probation work, and collection of parental contributions, duties which one and all require an intimate knowledge of the home,
428
the plain clothes police assigned to the duty paid 42,271 visits to homes. Not a single complaint has been made, and I firmly believe that these visits have a lasting effect, not only towards the particular object for which they are in-dividually paid, but in furthering that friendly relationship between police and people which should be the constant aim of the former. . . .
" There is enormous advance in all movements towards providing influences to replace or strengthen parental con-trol, to the decay of which juvenile delinquency is almost entirely due. Whether that influence is official, as is shown in the increasing control of the Education authority over personal behaviour both in and out of school, or unofficial, as is shown in the Boys' Brigades connected and unconnected with particular churches, the Boy Scouts, and so on, it all tends towards improvement, physical and mental. . . .
"Attract a boy by a uniform and some sort of equipment, whether it is the toy rifle of the Boys' Brigade or the leaping pole of the Boy Scout, and along with drill in its use he will readily imbibe instruction in many useful things, and above all in principles of discipline, of good manners and moral restraint, which, presented by themselves, would offer little or no attraction. Treat him like a man, drill him like a man, trust him like a man, set him marching about the country with his chest out and let him play at soldiers. Teach him how to render First Aid, and he will look for chances to show his skill. Teach him that it is a man's part to help the weak, to guide the blind man through traffic, for instance, and he will do it. Make him the modern knight-errant, and he will grow up into that man and be-come a useful healthy citizen."
Regarding the question of purity, among other passages are the following :-
"Public attention has now been drawn to the growth of impurity among the young, boys and girls, and to the
429
necessity as far as girls are concerned for prevention rather than cure. This, strictly speaking, is outside the province of the police, touching as it does immorality which is not unlawful, and there is no further justification for emphasising it as has been done in former reports." . . .
"To combat this is a matter of education, which is all the more needed by reason of the decay of parental influence over both boys and girls at the most dangerous period of life. Among the temptations which weaken virtue there is one with which the law could deal, the flood of printed garbage which flows all round the young. As long as the printing and publication of filth is a legitimate source of profit they will increase; competition has done away with many old-fashioned ideas of what is and what is not legitimate, and in few departments of trade is this more conspicuous than in the trade in printed matter."
"Personally I am glad to see the increased use of the birch, as there are many boys for whom it is the best treat¬ment, and some offences to which it is peculiarly suitable, indecency for instance.
" When corporal punishment does seem necessary, it is better that it should be done by order of the court, and not left to the parent as a condition of discharge; in the former case, it is properly measured and can do no actual harm, while the solemnity of the circumstances adds to its effect; in the latter, it often takes an objectionable form : a blow of the fist or the use of a buckled strap which may inflict an injury, and, being inflicted in anger at the trouble which has been caused, breeds resentment and hatred.
"The free use of the birch, however, is not to be taken as an indication that the treatment of the children is severe ; I believe that our court realises as truly as any the idea of a Children's Court, especially in the care taken by the magis¬trate to make the parents realise their duty."
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"The suggestion that street trading should be absolutely forbidden to girls has occupied the attention of the Watch Committee during the year, but a recommendation that no fresh licenses be issued to girls under i6 was not approved by the City Council.
"Upon this point I beg to repeat what appeared in the report for last year, that, if prohibition of trading meant removal from the street, the benefit of the change would be undoubted, but the one thing does not follow the other. . . . It is said that street trading offers peculiar dangers to the virtue of the girls ; the street certainly does offer those tempta¬tions, but I am inclined to think that the girl who goes into the street to trade, under the supervision and protection of the police, runs far less danger than the girl who goes into the streets and parks for amusement, which she seeks in the company of the other sex, under circumstances which in themselves constitute a danger to her virtue."
In view of these and other facts, in regard to bet-ting and drinking, for example, which have not been dealt with here, and of the serious deductions to be drawn from them, it surely behoves those who care for the future stability, honour, and welfare of their nation to investigate these matters for themselves, to draw their information from reliable and experi¬enced sources, and then to resolutely accept their indi-vidual responsibility in regard to the formation of a sound and vigorous public opinion which shall stimulate wise remedial measures.
N0TE.-Mr. Simpson's Introduction is to be obtained in the Criminal Statistics, 1909 (England and
431
Wales), Part I., sold by Messrs. Wyman and Sons, Limited, Fetter Lane, E.C. Price 1s. 10d. net.
Mr. Dunning's words are taken from the "Reports of the Police Establishment and State of Crime " (1909 and 1910), supplied by the Police Stores, Liver¬pool. Price Is. each net.
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